Summary: Jews Under Muslim Rule (622 CE – Present)

1. The Prophet Muhammad and Early Islam (622–632 CE)

In Medina, Muhammad initially formed a political pact with the local Jewish tribes. However, tensions rose due to religious and political disagreements. Some tribes were expelled (e.g., Banu Qaynuqa and Banu Nadir), and others (notably Banu Qurayza) were executed or enslaved following accusations of treason. These events set a precedent for future Muslim-Jewish relations: coexistence punctuated by conflict when political or religious tensions rose.

2. The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates (632–750)

Jews were classified as dhimmi (protected non-Muslims) under Islamic law. They paid the jizya tax and were allowed to practice their religion and administer their communities in exchange for loyalty and submission. While they had limited rights and faced social and legal restrictions, Jews were generally safer than in many contemporary Christian lands.

3. Abbasid Caliphate and Regional Dynasties (750–1258)

Under the Abbasids, particularly in Baghdad, Jewish life flourished intellectually and culturally. Jews held positions in commerce and medicine, and the Babylonian Talmud was finalized in earlier centuries. Jewish academies thrived, especially in Iraq and Persia. Yet periodic persecutions occurred, often influenced by local rulers or clerics. Regional Islamic powers like the Fatimids and Almoravids varied in tolerance; some periods (e.g., under the Almohads) were marked by forced conversions and exile.

4. Mongol Invasions, Mamluks, and Fragmentation (1258–1500)

The Mongol sack of Baghdad (1258) shattered the Islamic heartland. Jews in many regions suffered in the chaos. The Mamluks in Egypt and Syria imposed strict laws on Jews and Christians but permitted continued existence. In Yemen and North Africa, Jews often faced harsh treatment, including forced ghettoization, heavy taxation, and violence.

5. Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia (1500–1800)

The Ottoman Empire, spanning from the Balkans to the Middle East, offered relative stability. Jews expelled from Spain (1492) were welcomed in Istanbul and Salonica. Jews contributed economically and intellectually, but their position remained subordinate. In Persia under the Safavids, Jews were treated more harshly, with episodes of forced conversion, social degradation, and confinement.

6. Colonialism and Reform (1800–1900)

As European powers colonized Muslim lands (e.g., France in Algeria, Britain in Egypt), they introduced new legal systems and often improved Jewish rights. The Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire promised equality, though discrimination persisted. European Jews and consuls increasingly advocated for local Jewish rights, creating tensions with Muslim majorities who saw Jews as collaborators with imperialists.

7. Zionism, World Wars, and the Collapse of Empire (1900–1948)

The rise of Zionism and increased Jewish immigration to Palestine fueled tensions with Arab Muslims. European anti-Semitism and the Holocaust drove more Jews to seek refuge in Palestine. The British Mandate in Palestine tried to balance competing Jewish and Arab nationalisms but failed, leading to increased violence.

8. Creation of Israel and Jewish Exodus (1948–1970s)

The establishment of Israel in 1948 triggered anti-Jewish riots, property confiscations, and expulsions across the Muslim world. Over 850,000 Jews fled or were expelled from Arab and Islamic countries. Some left voluntarily amid rising hostility; others were forced. Ancient Jewish communities in Iraq, Egypt, Yemen, Libya, and elsewhere were effectively erased.

9. Modern Era (1970s–Present)

Today, very few Jews remain in most Muslim-majority countries. Exceptions include small communities in Iran, Turkey, and Morocco. Diplomatic normalization between Israel and some Arab states (e.g., UAE, Bahrain, Morocco) in recent years has opened limited space for interfaith dialogue. However, political tensions over Palestine and broader Arab-Israeli conflict continue to influence perceptions and treatment of Jews in the region.

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Themes Across the Centuries

• Legal Status: Jews under Muslim rule were typically protected but subordinate. The dhimmi system allowed for limited religious freedom in exchange for taxes and political submission.

• Periods of Tolerance and Persecution: Coexistence often prevailed, especially under strong central authorities, but could quickly shift to persecution in times of political instability or religious fervor.

• Cultural Contribution: Despite restrictions, Jews contributed greatly to Islamic civilization in medicine, philosophy, finance, and trade.

• Modern Decline: The 20th century saw the collapse of nearly all Jewish communities in the Muslim world due to nationalism, conflict with Israel, and state-sponsored discrimination.